5.4 Unmanned Systems Space-Based Applications

Advancements in technology have provided mankind with the ability to travel farther and over longer periods of time than ever before, all without risk to human life.  In support of unmanned vs. manned explorations in space I offer the following blog with an article that supports my view.

From the pre-historic trek of humans across the land bridge over the Bering Strait some 12,000 years ago to the mid-20th century deep sea voyages of Jacques-Yves Cousteau (Patenaude, 2015, para. 1), mankind has explored the unknown since the beginning of time.  Much to their peril, humans have ventured out on expeditions beyond mountainous terrains, expansive deserts, endless ocean scapes and the vastness of the universe.

Mankind has always wondered about the marvels of space; the moon, distant planets, our sun and those of distant galaxies far, far, away.  But mankind didn’t jump on the first rocket in an effort to visit the outer boundaries of the Earth’s atmosphere.  First came Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite.  Launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957 it marked the start of the space age (Garber, 2007, para. 1).  Then on November 3, Russia launched Sputnik II, with a payload that included a dog named Laika.  The successful missions that followed and the data collected led to the knowledge that man could survive in space, beyond the protective blanket of Earth’s atmosphere.  But these missions don’t come without cost, a cost both in technology and in loss of human life.

While manned missions can result in the injury or death of humans, they also offer a unique perspective on exploration. However, robotic missions can go places humans cannot and often for far less money (Chavis, 2015, para. 1).  With increased pressure to mitigate the costs associated with manned space operations, technological advancements have introduced unmanned systems capable of traveling long distances, over decades of time, searching for answers to life itself all while collecting valuable scientific data in hopes of supporting colonization beyond that of Earth and its dwindling resources.

An article written by Jason Chavis, Disadvantages to Manned Missions to Space (2015) introduced the benefits of robotic spaceflight versus that of manned operations by presenting concerns of Safety, Health, Time and Costs. The following are excerpts from each of these concerns:

Safety Concerns

Safety is a major issue of manned and remote space missions. Both government agencies and the public regard the deaths or injuries of astronauts or cosmonauts a major failure. Conversely, robotic spaceflights have virtually no risk to humans outside of ground accidents. In total, five percent of all people who have attempted to fly into space have died (para. 2).

Health Risks

When astronauts or cosmonauts fly into space, they can experience a number of illnesses including immune deficiency, collapse of bone and muscle tissue, decompression sickness and radiation poisoning.  Robotic spaceflights have no issues in regards to health.  Since there are no humans present, very little affects the spacecraft.  Robots are able to achieve their missions with almost no threat to human life (para. 3).

Time Frame

Manned missions are definitely at a disadvantage when it comes to time. Human crews are required to train for months to years in order to pilot spacecraft. Robotic spacecraft, on the other hand, are built to conduct their mission immediately. However, there is a disadvantage to construction because of the fact that it takes years to build an unmanned craft.

In addition, there are limitations to what manned space flight can accomplish in regards to the time it takes to get to destinations. Humans are limited on lifespan, which causes the timespan of a flight to become an important factor. Meanwhile, robotic spacecraft have no such factors impacting their lifespan. This becomes highly important since no medical emergencies can be handled from the ground crew short of advice to the astronauts (para. 4).

Costs

The overall cost of human spaceflight versus robotic missions is a significant factor in the decision to continue missions. According to NASA, each space shuttle mission costs $420 million on average, but increased drastically after the Columbia disaster. These missions generally only last one to two weeks. Robotic missions cost significantly less money considering the tasks can take place over the course of years. For example, the Cassini-Huygens and Voyager missions have lasted years. In many ways, robotic missions are preferred over what many people may consider a traditional manned mission to space (para. 5).

References

Chavis, J.C. (2015) Disadvantages to Manned Missions to Space Retrieved from http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/72499.aspx

Graber, S. (2007). Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age Retrieved from https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/

Patenaude, M. (2015). What drives humans to explore the unknown? Retrieved from http://www.rochester.edu/newscenter/journeys-into-the-unknown-91212/

4.4 The future of UAS in either the military or civilian sectors

In support of my continued graduate studies in Unmanned Systems, this week’s Blog assignment was to comment on a recent article centered on the future of unmanned aerial systems in either the military or civilian sectors.

Ironically, this morning I found an article under the subtitle of Future Technology, on the front page of my locally delivered newspaper, THE PRESS-ENTERPRISE. The article, SoCal’s Changing Urban Landscape-How driverless cars, drones and other tech will change the urban landscape of Southern California, was written by Neil Nisperos June 18^th, 2017.

With the influx of 21^st century technologies, Nisperos offered a future consisting of driverless cars, drones and virtual reality (para. 2).  Big yellow-taxis will be replaced with driverless vehicles, drones will deliver packages to a specific location at your residence and virtual reality applications will be enhanced by faster internet speeds, perpetuating and enhancing a work from home environment, thereby significantly reducing traffic congestion at peak commuter time frames.

This vision of the future is all well and good, but in case you just crawled out from under a rock, the article is already old news.  Internet speeds are already supporting work from home and working hub environments, with real-time video conference applications such as MeetingBurner, Meetin.gs, GoToMeeting, Yugma, WebEx, and 321Meet (Fance, n.d.) to name a few, all of which enable the teleworker to be virtually present in business meetings and all-hands office discussions both globally and internationally.

Hardly considered futuristic, at the pace in which technology is proving these systems out, driverless cars are only 2-3 years away from full scale production and will be capable of providing level 4 autonomy to the market.  A list of these autonomous cars and their manufacturers can be found at this link.

Where the futures of drones or UAS are concerned, one only needs to see how the technology is already proliferating into our daily lives.

Technology/Operations

Nisperos wrote in his article:

The future is now- Much of the changes hinted at are already under way. New apartment projects, including a yet-to-be named 570-unit rental project to be built just north of the Citizens Business Bank Arena in Ontario, will incorporate design concepts for people to better work from home and areas to accept packages from Amazon and other online retailers (The future is now section, para. 1).

Amazon, thru its proposed airborne delivery system, Prime Air, is actively working with the FAA thru one of many pathfinder programs to develop the sensory capabilities and show regulatory compliance, where package delivery relates to UAS operations beyond visual line-of-sight (BVLOS), sense/detect and avoid (SAA/DAA), and operations over people (OOP).

A description of how the service is provided and when it will become a reality can be found on the Prime Air website:

·       Amazon Prime Air is a service that will deliver packages up to five pounds in 30 minutes or less using small drones.

·       Safety is our top priority. Our vehicles will be built with multiple redundancies, as well as sophisticated “sense and avoid” technology. Additionally, through our private trial in the UK, we will gather data to continue improving the safety and reliability of our systems and operations.

·       We will deploy when and where we have the regulatory support needed to safely realize our vision. We’re excited about this technology and one day using it to deliver packages to customers around the world in 30 minutes or less.

·       We are testing many different vehicle designs and delivery mechanisms to discover how best to deliver packages in a variety of operating environments. The look and characteristics of the vehicles will continue to evolve over time.

·       We have Prime Air development centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Austria, France and Israel. We are testing the vehicles in multiple international locations.

·       We believe the airspace is safest when small drones are separated from most manned aircraft traffic, and where airspace access is determined by capabilities.

·       We are currently permitted to operate during daylight hours when there are low winds and good visibility, but not in rain, snow or icy conditions. Once we’ve gathered data to improve the safety and reliability of our systems and operations, we will expand the envelope. (FAQs, 2017).

·       We are working with regulators and policymakers in various countries in order to make Prime Air a reality for our customers around the world, and expect to continue to do so.

By employing the resources of one of their many geographically located distribution facilities, the likelihood of Amazon Prime Air package delivery is on the horizon and not as far out in the future as one would imagine.

References

Amazon (2017). Prime Air, Frequently asked Questions, Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Amazon-Prime-Air/b?node=8037720011

Fance, C. (n.d.) Online Meeting and Web Conferencing Tools-Best Of, Retrieved from http://www.hongkiat.com/blog/online-meeting-tools/

Nisperos, N (2017). SoCal’s Changing Urban Landscape, How driverless cars, drones and other tech will alter the look and development of cities, Future Technology, The Press Enterprise, Retrieved from http://www.pe.com/2017/06/18/how-driverless-cars-drones-and-other-tech-will-change-the-urban-landscape-of-southern-california-4-2/

3.4 - Research Blog 2: Unmanned Maritime Systems

  Per this week’s assignment the class was required to comment on an article that centered on the future of Unmanned Marine Systems (UMS) in either the military or civilian sector. The article was required to discuss both the technical and operational uses and must be no more than 12 months old.

This week’s blog is focused on an article written by Abhijit Singh Unmanned and Autonomous Vehicles and future Maritime Operations in Littoral Asia (July 2016).

As Unmanned Aircraft Systems were significantly enhanced to support wartime efforts in the Asia Pacific theater, so too are efforts to enhance the technological and operational capabilities of Unmanned Marine Systems to provide additional support for the Indian Navy.

Supporting this transition, Singh wrote:

While the more substantive developments in unmanned technology have involved aerial drones, the more interesting possibilities are in the field of underwater vehicles. Indeed, despite the institutional and policy attention enjoyed by aerial platforms, it is unmanned and autonomous undersea vehicles that have been the subject of strategic debate and discussion in Indian maritime circles (para. 15).

Singh presented the significant operational roles this technology plays in supporting the world’s leading navies as; high-tech submersibles for mine countermeasure (MCM) operations, naval intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) roles, and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missions (para. 16).

He further categorized Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) as those that are autonomous undersea vehicles (AUVs) and remotely operated undersea vehicles (ROVs). By clarifying, “an AUV differs from an ROV by maintaining a degree of autonomy from human control. The AUV’s chief attribute is that it can undertake ASW tasks typically carried out by nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSNs), freeing the latter to perform more critical functions” (Singh, para. 16).

Singh also presented two distinguishing operational characteristics of AUVs in that they;
• Possess onboard intelligence and an inherent ability to self-program and execute missions. Unlike ships and submarines that are commanded solely by humans, autonomous undersea vessels exercise their innate judgment in performing operational tasks, and adversely
• They are inherently risky due to their inability to avoid risky maneuvers, leading to untoward incidents or collateral damage in combat situations (para. 18).

Aside from untimely incidents AUVs are also plagued with a moral dilemma as to whether the engagement of an enemy is deemed a legitimate act, minus due authorization from a human in the loop command.

The Indian navy, in consideration of these and other ethical considerations has taken a pro-active approach in the development of numerous UUV platforms from hand-held slow-speed ones, to military-class platforms, with the capability to assist in the entire gamut of maritime security (Singh, para. 19).

Current attention is given to that of the Defense Research and Development Organizations (DRPO) prototype capable of speeds up to seven km per hour at depths of up to 300 meters.  The system is reportedly being reworked to include passive sonar and electro-optical sensors for anti-mining missions (Singh, para. 20).

Where these prototype systems are designed and tested to meet the operational requirements of the user, they still must overcome three major technical constraints inherent to UUVs, 1) energy storage 2) communication link and 3) autonomous control.

Essentially all state-of-the-art UUVs today are battery-powered, and battery capacity remains the most fundamental limitation on range and endurance (Whitman, n.d.).  Despite improvements to electrochemical and conventional fuel cell technology no significant breakthroughs in energy technology have been made to permit relatively small UUVs to perform theater-scale missions or long-duration trailing tasks (Whitman, n.d.).

R. Turner noted in his article, The Unmanned Underwater Future (2014) that;

UUVs come with a disclaimer; the technology is in its infancy and lags behind unmanned land and air equivalents.  Communication with submerged platforms is highly challenging and that problem is compounded when you remove the human from the platform. Additional issues with propulsion, energy use and payload capacity add to the complexity of developing UUVs for naval operations (para. 8).

Ultimately, as technical improvements to AUVs continue and operational capabilities are realized, the world’s navies will struggle with the ethical challenges and decisions associated with operations played out forward of the manned fleet.

References

Singh, A. (2016). Unmanned and Autonomous Vehicles and Future Maritime Operations in Littoral Asia Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/unmanned-and-autonomous-vehicles-and-future-maritime-operations-in-littoral-asia/

Turner, R. (2014) The Unmanned Underwater Future, the Strategist Retrieved from   https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/the-unmanned-underwater-future/

Whitman, E. C. (n.d.). Beneath the Wave of the Future Retrieved from   http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_15/wave.html

The Future of Unmanned Ground Vehicles in the civilian sector.

I am a graduate student of Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU) currently enrolled in UNSY 501 Application of Unmanned Systems.  As presented in the course syllabus:

This nine week course prepares students to understand the application of unmanned systems and their respective elements and technology to the operational domains, including atmospheric, exo-atmospheric, ground, and maritime environments. It includes applications, business cases, selection criteria, limitations and constraints, and ethical, safety, and legal considerations. Students will research, appraise, and recommend unmanned system tasking, environmental operational requirements, and system collaboration opportunities.

In realizing these course objectives students have been tasked with creating a research blog as a means of documenting our research as it relates to certain articles applicable to unmanned systems in both the civilian and military sectors.

My first blog for this week’s assignment is focused on the future of UGVs in the civilian sector and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of this technology.

Intel / Strategic Analytics

A recent study and research of autonomous vehicles reported that by the year 2050, driverless vehicles will account for $7 trillion worth of economic activity and new efficiencies.  That activity will include nearly $4 trillion from driverless ride-hailing and nearly $3 trillion from driverless delivery and business logistics (Morris, 2017).

The study also claims that because of the autonomous nature of driverless vehicles and their potential for greater safety, nearly half a million lives could be saved between 2035 and 2045. One can assume the reason that immediate gains from this technology are not achieved until 2035 is due primarily to a cultural hurdle and not a technical one.  Andrew Moore, science dean at Carnegie Mellon recently stated “No one is going to want to realize autonomous driving into the world until there’s proof that it’s much safer, like a factor of 100 safer, than having a human drive” (LaFrance, 2015).

What the study failed to account for was the contradiction of transportation innovation that may complicate the report’s conclusions.  Where newer technology is intended to solve our transportation woes it induces an adverse effect by increasing demand for that technology. A prime example is that of the “induced demand” that often instantly clogs newly-built highways (Morris, para. 5, 2017).

The report also claimed that driverless cars could eventually save 250 million commuting hours as the global trend towards urbanization becomes a significant reality.  An adverse opinion was provided by D. Muoio in her article, Self-driving cars could be terrible for traffic — here's why (2017);

Self-driving cars might make your future commute a lot more pleasant, but they won't eliminate traffic (para. 1).

Lew Fulton, a co-director of the STEPS program at UC Davis' Institute of Transportation Studies (ITP), told Business Insider that autonomous vehicles won't fix congestion woes unless a pricing system is put in place that discourages zero-occupancy vehicles.  "We are especially concerned about zero-occupant vehicles that can happen with automated vehicles, Fulton said.  "That scenario is especially plausible with private ownership of those vehicles and no limits to what we can do with them."

For example, many companies are interested in programming autonomous cars to run errands or pick-up packages, but these efforts could increase traffic by multiplying the number of zero-occupant cars, or "zombie cars," on the road, Fulton said.

Congestion could also worsen as companies like Lucid Motors explore designing self-driving vehicles around comfort, like installing reclining seats (Figure 1).

Figure 1.  Reclining seats in Lucid Motors' autonomous car, the Lucid Air

Where urbanization increases and populations become more centralized the need for personal transportation is no longer an issue.  However, over populated areas become less appealing to some as urbanization leads to lack of jobs, air pollution, negative impact on biodiversity, disease and crime (Reese, 2017).  Not wanting the urban way of life driverless cars could actually encourage some people to live even farther away from workplaces, or to take even more daily trips, because they can spend the time in their car working.

References

LaFrance, A. (2015). Self-Driving Cars Could Save 300,000 Lives Per Decade in America Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/09/self-driving-cars-could-save-300000-lives-per-decade-in-america/407956/

Morris, D.Z. (2017).  Driverless Cars Will Be Part of a $7 Trillion Market by 2050 Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2017/06/03/autonomous-vehicles-market/

Reese, J. (2017). 5 Major Problems of Urbanization Retrieved from http://peopleof.oureverydaylife.com/5-major-problems-urbanization-7031.html

The Future of the UAS

9.4 - Blog:

In closing out the last of nine weeks of study in ERAUs-WW, Masters of Science, ASCI 637 Unmanned Systems Operations and Payload course, this blog was created to discuss an article centered on the future of unmanned aerial systems and where UAS technology is going to advance in the next five to ten years. It was also required to include aspects regarding new or modifying current regulations to aid in the implementation of the unmanned aerial systems into the national airspace. The article could be no more than 12 months old. Here is my perspective, with no article for support.

If UAS Integration into the NAS were classified as a “can of worms," then the analogy that it keeps getting kicked down the road or into the future wouldn’t be too farfetched. Articles, journals, books, online media and classrooms alike, are filled with hyperbole on where UAS technology will be five to ten years down the road.

The truth of the matter is; UAS and the technology that drives them are already here, in all their glory. From systems <55 lbs. to those equivalent in size to a Boeing 737, UAS operated by both public and civil sectors are ready to inundate the NAS with all their sensory platforms, human factor studies, manufacturing advancements and operator training/skill sets. Unfortunately, the technology arrived at such an expeditious rate that no crystal ball could prepare those that regulate the NAS and the aircraft that fly safely in it, with the ability to create the requisite guidance and regulations to allow for safe and unfettered access to it. Driven by DoD needs and applications, regulators worldwide failed to comprehend the quickness with which UAS technology evolved and was embraced by the civilian populace. As technology was quickly developed, implemented and proven for DoD/Public operations (albeit on a much larger scale), the civil sector drove hard to miniaturize the DoD’s proven technology for their own commercial applications. That was five to ten years if not more, “cans down the road” ago. Aside from the soon to be released Part 107-Operation and Certification of Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems rule, “Today” is where UAS technology is, those that wish to integrate the NAS only have to wait for the regulators to catch up, perhaps another five to ten years in the future.

On a day-to-day basis I am constantly aware of the adage, “you don’t know what you don’t know." Unfortunately, with that adage being all to true, it will only be after UAS have integrated into the NAS and technologies and regulations perceived to be the answer, fail. Only then will new and improved regulations and supporting technology be developed to ensure the NAS remains safe for all those that operate in it.

”Utilities see potential in drones to inspect lines, towers”

The caption says it all. Public utilities, commercial and DoD operators have all identified a need for “drones”. Unfortunately, aside from granted exemptions (333) and Certificates of Authorizations (COAs) the lack of clear regulations allowing for UAS integration in the NAS, only leaves those wishing to do so with “seeing a potential” to conduct those operations.

The captioned article published in The Press Enterprise was written by Mary Esch (2015), wherein she introduced the often dangerous work of inspecting power lines and transmission towers by lineman and the potential benefits of using remote controlled drones to mitigate those dangers. However, strict regulatory restrictions defining commercial operations have strained the ability of Utilities wishing to take advantage of such technology.

Utilities spend millions of dollars inspecting power lines, often in hard to reach places using manned vehicles. The remote controlled systems are equipped with cameras and additional sensors that enable the inspectors to inspect wind turbines, utility poles, power lines and transformers all from the safe confines of terra-firma. These inspections are conducted at a fraction of the cost of the manned operations.

Andrew Bordine, a Consumers Energy executive stated, “With wind turbines, you’ll have a couple of guys hanging off blades by a rope a couple hundred feet in the air to do inspections visually, at a cost upwards of $10,000 per site. We can get the same results with a UAV for $300, without putting workers in danger.”

Navigant (2016) presented in part, the following market assessment:

“By the beginning of 2015, there were nearly 270,000 individual wind turbines operating globally. The more than 800,000 blades spinning on these turbines are battered by the elements over time and gradually wear out. Deterioration can cause reduced energy production in early stages and catastrophic and costly blade collapse if left unnoticed. This is driving a brisk business in wind turbine blade inspections, a role that has traditionally been accomplished from the ground with simple visual inspections or more complicated and risky rope or platform access. A new approach using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, is rapidly muscling in as a middle option.”

Doing the math is the easy part, publishing an acceptable regulation to allow for these operations has potentially been more difficult than imagined.

References

Esch, M., (2015, November 23) Utilities see potential in drones to inspect lines, towers, clipping from The Press Enterprise, Moreno Valley, CA. Copy in possession of R Winn.

Navigant Research (2016) Drones for Wind Turbine Inspection Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Inspection Services for Wind Turbines: Global Market Assessment and Forecasts, Retrieved from https://www.navigantresearch.com/research/drones-for-wind-turbine-inspection

9.5 Human factors, UAS Remote Warfare

Human Factors, UAS Remote Warfare and the Ethical and Moral issues involved


Robert J. Winn

ERAU-WW-ASCI638

12/18/2015

Abstract
For millennia, wars have set the stage for the inception and the need for advanced weaponry. Mankind has understood that those with the most advanced technology may surely win a war or at best instill enough fear of retribution in any opponent, that a war should not be undertaken in the first place. From the days of the spear, or bow and arrow to the current unmanned drones that operate in remote areas of the world, mankind will continue to develop weapons that will provide them with a distinct advantage over an enemy. Along with these advancements come the cries for ethical and moral responsibility of those that retain the technology. This paper will address those responsibilities as they pertain to use of unmanned drones in remote arenas and the human factors involved with unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) compared to that of manned fighter operations. Seven technologies that have transformed warfare will be included in the paper and a discussion regarding the continued use of UAS in warfare, and what to expect in regards future improvements of their capabilities.
Keywords: advanced technology, drones, ethics, morality, remote warfare, responsibility, weaponry
 
Human Factors, UAS Remote Warfare and the Ethical and Moral issues involved
War has a long history that dates back to the dawn of civilization, but armies have come a long way since the spear, or the bow and arrow. Advances in technology have led to faster airplanes, laser-guided weapons, and unmanned, bomb-carrying vehicles (Chow, 2013). But none of these technologies have been introduced without relentless discussions by those claiming these advanced weapons should be wielded without some ethical or moral responsibility.
The most recent advancement in weaponry used today is that of the unmanned aircraft system (UAS) or most commonly referred to as a Drone. It has not been exempt in any means from those discussions regarding ethical and moral responsibility, but by nature of its “unmanned” perception has drawn even more attention by critics.
In order to grasp an understanding of how drones provide a higher level of responsibility than that of their predecessors, six other technologies that have transformed warfare have been presented.
As with any new technology, human factors issues associated with that technology arise. UAS have introduced human factors not previously seen by manned operations performing the same missions. How these human factors are mitigated will be addressed by any future advancement to the technology.
Culture and Values
Sociologists define culture as the beliefs, values, behaviors and material objects that define a people’s way of life. (Macionis, 1995, p. 62). A cultures or societies values are further defined by their ethics and morals or their perception of right or wrong.
Ethics
The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Ethics, as a theory, has been divided into many fields of study; Metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics, the latter of which involves examining specific controversial issues such as nuclear war and the use of drones in remote warfare. It is from this area of study that determines how societies shape their opinions of what is right or wrong with wars and how technologies should or shouldn’t be used in them.
The Seven
Denise Chow presented in her article 7 Technologies that transformed warfare (2013) each of these technologies have presented their own ethical, moral as well as human factor issues:
• Drones- Combat drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles, enable troops to deploy weapons in war while safely remaining thousands of miles away from the front lines of the battlefield. As such, the lives of drone pilots are not in danger, which helps the military limit the number of combat fatalities.
• Fly-by-wire- Fly-by-wire technology replaces manual flight controls with an electronic interface that uses signals generated by a computer and transmitted by wires to move control mechanisms. The introduction of fly-by-wire systems in aircraft enabled more precise computer guidance and control.
• Submarines- Submarines revolutionized naval warfare by introducing underwater vessels capable of attacking enemy ships. The first successful submarine attack on a warship occurred during the American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865. In February 1864, the Confederate submarine CSS H.L. Hunley sank the USS Housatonic in the waters off South Carolina.
Today, the military uses submarines to carry missiles, conduct reconnaissance, support land attacks, and establish blockades.
• Tomahawk missiles- The Tomahawk is a type of long-range cruise missile designed to fly at extremely low altitudes at subsonic speeds, enabling the weapons to be used to attack various surface targets. These jet engine-powered missiles were first used operationally during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. The missiles travel at speeds of approximately 550 miles per hour (880 km/h), and use GPS receivers to pinpoint their targets more accurately.
• Stealth aircraft- Stealth aircraft help pilots evade detection in the sky. While planes cannot be completely invisible to radar detection, stealth planes use a range of advanced technologies to reduce the aircraft's reflection, radio frequency spectrum, and radar and infrared emissions. Stealth technology increases the odds of a successful attack, since enemies have a harder time finding, tracking and defending against these aircraft.
The development of stealth technology likely began in Germany during World War II, but some of the most well-known modern examples of American stealth aircraft include the F-35 Lightning II, the F-22 Raptor and the B-2 Spirit.
• Space weapons- Space weapons include a range of warheads that can attack targets on Earth from space, intercept and disable missiles traveling through space, or destroy space systems or satellites in orbit. During the Cold War, both the U.S. and the former Soviet Union developed space weapons, as political tensions escalated.
While the militarization of space remains controversial, the U.S., Russia and China have developed anti-satellite weapons. Several test firings of these warheads have been successful in destroying satellites in orbit, including a 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test that destroyed one of the country's defunct weather satellites.
• Nuclear Weapons- Nuclear bombs are mankind's most destructive weapons. The world's first nuclear weapons, or atomic bombs, were developed by physicists working on the Manhattan Project during World War II.
The Manhattan Project, which began in 1939, has become one of the most well-known secret research programs. The first nuclear bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, the explosion created a massive mushroom cloud, and the bomb's explosive power was equivalent of more than 15,000 tons of TNT.
In August 1945, two atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. The bombings effectively ended World War II, but ushered in decades of global fear of nuclear annihilation. To date, the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki remain the only uses of nuclear weapons in war.
Human Factors
There are numerous human factors associated with both manned and unmanned weapons systems. However, one distinct advantage of using unmanned drones in remote warfare is that it takes the limitations of manned (pilot–on–board) operations out of the equation. No longer are the flight restrictions of manned operations a factor. The drone can remain airborne for as long as its capabilities will allow, where operations of manned weapons are restricted by the physical capabilities of the pilot over longer periods of time.
This allows for more precise targeting, as the drone can hover over a target for longer periods of time to ensure that a target has been positively identified and when the decision to “take-it out” has been given, the target has been isolated as much as possible to reduce the effects of collateral damage.
Artificial Intelligence
Reg Austin (2010) suggested “the study of Artificial Intelligence probably began in the 1930s and has enjoyed a roller-coaster ride in similar fashion to that of UAS development. One is a bottom-up approach which attempts to develop neural networks akin to the operation of the human brain. The other, known as top-down, attempts to simulate the performance of a human brain by using high speed computer algorithms”. Until the Micro-Control Processor or brain of the UAS has been improved neither of these approaches will be proven.
When and if that that day comes, the implementation of this advanced technology in future wars will be decided by the ethics and morals of a global society, which must consider allowing a weapon to think for itself and target the very species that created it.
 
References
Austin, R. (2010) Unmanned aircraft systems : UAVs design, development and deployment Reston, Va. : American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ; Chichester : Wiley, c2010.
Chow, D. (2013) 7 Technologies that transformed warfare LiveScience, November 19, 2013 Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/41321-military-war-technologies.html
Macionis, J. J. (1995) Sociology 5th edition, Culture Chapter 3,What is Culture?, By Prentice –Hall Inc.